Article Content

Abstract

Democracies in Europe fail to take adequate climate mitigation measures. In response, not only legal, but also illegal acts of climate protesters are multiplying in Europe. This paper examines the criminalisation of climate protests in France, Germany, Switzerland, and the UK. Against the overarching concept of dissensus to which this special issue is dedicated, this contribution reflects on the role of judges who deprive the disobedient from the opportunity to communicate about their motives. The paper pays particular attention to the case of David Nixon in the UK, in which the judge prohibited Mr. Nixon from sharing his motivation or mentioning climate change in the court room. This demeans civil disobedience to an ordinary criminal act and deprives democracy of its self-correcting potential.

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

  • Energy Justice
  • Environmental Ecojustice
  • Environmental Law
  • European Criminal Law
  • European Law
  • International Environmental Law

Notes

  1. http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case-category/protesters/ (accessed on 31 December 2023).

  2. UN Global Stocktake: https://unfccc.int/topics/global-stocktake; Climate action tracker: Home | Climate Action Tracker.

References

  • ADP Group (Paris Airports) v. Climate Activists. 2020. Court of First Instance of Bobigny, Tribunal Correctionnel (Fra.), available at https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/climate-activists-v-paris-airports/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • American Psychological Association. 2020. Survey of 2020: 2/3 of all Americans experience climate anxiety, available at https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2020/02/climate-change, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Amtsgericht Flensburg. 2022. [District Court Flensburg] Nov. 7, 2022–440 Cs 107 Js 7252/22. (Ger.).

  • Amtsgericht Heilbronn.2023. [District Court Heilbronn] Mar. 6, 2023–26 Ds 16 Js 4813/23. (Ger.).

  • Amtsgericht München. 2022. [District Court Munich] Sept. 16, 2022––1034 Ds 113 Js 124163/22 jug (Ger.).

  • Amtsgericht Tiergarten. 2022a. [District Court Tiergarten] Aug. 30, 2022a––422 Cs 231 Js 1831/22 (11/22) (Ger.).

  • Amtsgericht Tiergarten. 2022b. [District Court Tiergarten] Oct. 5, 2022b––(303 Cs) 237 Js 2450/22 (202/22). (Ger.).

  • Bamford, D. 2023. Can Climate Civil Disobedience be justified? Think 22 (64): 65–70.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Bayerisches Oberstes Landesgericht. 2023. [BayObLG] [Bavarian Higher Regional Court] Apr. 21, 2023, 205 StrafRechtsReport [StRR] 63 (2023) (Ger.).

  • Bedau, H. 1961. On civil disobedience. Journal of Philosophy 58: 653–665.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Bordeaux-Mérignac Airport v. Climate Activists. 2020. Criminal Court of Bordeaux (Fra.), available at https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/bordeaux-merignac-airport-v-climate-activists/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Brändlin A.-S. 2022. ‘Museum climate protests spark debate on activism tactics’, Deutsche Welle, 28 October, available at https://www.dw.com/en/museum-climate-protests-spark-debate-on-activism-tactics/a-63590402, accessed 7 Dec2023.

  • Brack, N. and R. Coman. 2024. ‘Dissensus over Liberal Democracy: Concept-Building and Typology in this issue’.

  • Braithwaite, S. and S. Tenno. 2024. ‘Environmental activists sentenced to years in prison over UK highway protest’ CNN, 18 July 2024, Just Stop Oil: UK court sentences climate activists to prison for 4–5 years over highway protest | CNN, accessed 2 Sep 2024.

  • Brownlee, K. 2012a. Conscience and Conviction: The case For Civil Disobedience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book Google Scholar

  • Brownlee, K. 2012b ‘Conscientious Objection, Civil Disobedience’ in Andrei Marmor (ed), The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Law, New York, NY: Routledge, 527–529.

  • Bundesverfassungsgericht. 2021. [German Federal Constitutional Court] Order of the First Senate of 24 March 2021 – 1 BvR 2656/18, 1 BvR 78/20, 1 BvR 96/20, 1 BvR 288/20 (Neubauer)

  • Caney, S. 2014. Two Kinds of Climate Justice: Avoiding Harm and Sharing Burdens. The Journal of Political Philosophy 22 (2): 125–149.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Celikates, R. 2016. Rethinking Civil Disobedience As A Practice of Contestation—Beyond the Liberal Paradigm. Constellations 23 (1): 37–45.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Chow, P.Y. 2022. The Change in Judicial Practice in Cases Concerning Civil Disobedience Protests and its Constitutional Significance. Modern Law Review 86: 927–950.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Climate Action Tracker (no date), available at https://climateactiontracker.org/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Cohen, C. 1971. Civil Disobedience: Conscience, Tactics, and the Law. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Cour d’appel penale. 2020. [Criminal Appeals Court] Hearing, Sept. 22, PE19.000742/PCL (Switz.), available at https://www.findinfo-tc.vd.ch/justice/findinfo-pub/html/CAPE/Jug/20200909110410802_e.html, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Credit Suisse Protesters Trial. 2020. Lausanne District Court, Court of Appeals in Geneva, Court of Appeals in Renens (Switz.), available at http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/credit-suisse-protesters-trial/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Dahl, R.A. 1989. Democracy and its Critics. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Delmas, C. 2019. A Duty to Resist: When Disobedience Should be Uncivil. London: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Deutschlandfunk. 2023. ‘Die Proteste der „Letzten Generation“’, 13 November, available at https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/letzte-generation-klima-proteste-aktivisten-100.html, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Dryzek, J.S. 2000. Deliberative Democracy and Beyond: Liberals, Critics, Contestations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Dryzek, J.S., and S. Niemeyer. 2006. Reconciling pluralism and consensus as political ideals. American Journal of Political Science 50 (3): 634–649.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Eckes, C., P. Leino-Sandberg, and A. Ghavanini. 2024. The Dynamics of Powers in the European Union, Hart Publishing.

  • Eckes, C., P. Leino-Sandberg, and A. Wallerman Ghavanini. 2021. ‘Conceptual framework for the project “Separation of Powers for 21st Century Europe (SepaRope)”’, Amsterdam Law School Research Paper No. 2021-06, Amsterdam Centre for European Law and Governance Research Paper No. 2021-01, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3777334.

  • Elstub, S. 2018. Deliberative and Participatory Democracy. In The Oxford Handbook of Deliberative Democracy, ed. A. Bächtiger. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Erastus-Obilo, B.G.A. 2006. The Place of the Explained Verdict in the English Criminal Justice System, Universal Publishers.

  • Extinction Rebellion UK, We Quit, post of 31 Dec 2022, available at: https://extinctionrebellion.uk/2022/12/31/we-quit/.

  • Forst, M. 2024. ‘State repression of environmental protest and civil disobedience: a major threat to human rights and democracy’, available at: https://unece.org/climate-change/press/un-special-rapporteur-environmental-defenders-under-aarhus-convention-releases, accessed on 2 September 2024

  • Gayle, D. 2021a. ‘Drivers threaten Insulate Britain activists in Essex protests’, The Guardian, 13 October, available at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/13/drivers-threaten-insulate-britain-activists-in-essex-protests, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Gayle, D. 2021b ‘Climate activists crossed the line with roadblocks, says minister’, The Guardian, 5 October 2021, available at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/05/climate-activists-insulate-britain-roadblocks-kit-malthouse, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Gayle, D. 2023. ‘Insulate Britain activist jailed for eight weeks for contempt of court’, The Guardian, 7 February, available at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/feb/07/insulate-britain-activist-david-nixon-jailed-for-eight-weeks-for-contempt-of-court, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Grant, N. et al. 2022. ‘Climate Analytics, 1.5°C Pathways for the EU27: accelerating climate action to deliver the Paris Agreement’, available at https://climateanalytics.org/media/1-5pathwaysforeu27-2022.pdf, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Habermas, J. 1985. Civil Disobedience: Lidmus Test for the Democratic Constitutional State. Berkeley Journal of Sociology 30: 95–116.

    Google Scholar

  • Hickman, C., et al. 2021. Climate Anxiety in Children and Young People and Their Beliefs About Government Responses to Climate Change: A Global Survey. The Lancet––Planetary Health 5 (12): E863–E873.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Hodgson, C. and A. Hancock. 2023. ‘EU must speed up emissions cuts to meet net zero climate target, says report’, Financial Times, 25 June, available at https://www.ft.com/content/da82c1d0-3494-4f02-a435-c38c9dcf649c?desktop=true&segmentId=7c8f09b9-9b61-4fbb-9430-9208a9e233c8#myft:notification:daily-email:content, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Hosking, G. 2019. ‘The decline of trust in government’, in Sasaki, M. (ed.), Trust in Contemporary Society. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, pp. 77–103.

  • IPCC. 2018. ‘Special Report. Global Warming of 1.5 C’.

  • Keller, S., and B. Bornemann. 2021. New Climate Activism between Politics and Law: Analyzing the Strategy of the KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz. Politics and Governance 9 (2): 124–134.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Ketcham, C. 2024. ‘Europe’s Crackdown on Environmental Defense is Silencing a Message the World Needs to Hear’, New York Times, 18 August 2024, available at: Opinion | Europe’s Crackdown on Environmental Defense Is Silencing a Message the World Needs to Hear – The New York Times (nytimes.com), accessed on 2 Sep 2024.

  • Kuper, S. 2023. ‘How to tackle your inner climate denier’, Financial Times, 23 November, available at https://www.ft.com/content/108727c5-abd0-4194-b961-2676257a34b9?desktop=true&segmentId=7c8f09b9-9b61-4fbb-9430-9208a9e233c8#myft:notification:daily-email:content, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Kyllönen, S. 2014. Civil Disobedience, Climate Protests and a Rawlsian Argument for ‘Atmospheric’ Fairness. Environmental Values 23 (5): 593–613.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Lafont, C. 2020. Democracy Without Shortcuts – A Participatory Conception of Deliberative Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Lambert D. 2022. ‘Juries keep letting Extinction Rebellion off the hook—here’s why’, The Standard, 8 April, available at https://www.standard.co.uk/comment/juries-judges-extinction-rebellion-innocent-just-stop-oil-protests-climate-activists-b992610.html, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Lefkowitz, D. 2007. On a Moral Right to Civil Disobedience. Ethics 117 (2): 202–233.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Mancilla, A. 2012. Noncivil disobedience and the right of necessity. Krisis 3: 3–15.

    Google Scholar

  • Mathiesen, K. 2023. ‘Climate Activists have a new traget: Civilians’, Politico, 2 May, available at https://www.politico.eu/article/climate-change-global-warming-earth-activists-have-a-new-target-civilians/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Minkkinen, P. 2020. Enemies of the People’? The Judiciary and Claude Lefort’s ‘SavageDemocracy. In Constituent Power–Law Popular Rule and Politics, ed. M. Arvidsson, L. Brännström, and P. Minkkinen, 27–42. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Möllers, C. 2013. The Three Branches: A Comparative Model of Separation of Powers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book Google Scholar

  • Mouffe, C. 1996. Democracy, Power and the “Political.” In Democracy and Difference, ed. S. Benhabib. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Mouffe, C. 2000. The Democratic Paradox, Verso Books, pp. 80–108.

  • Mouffe, C. 2016. ‘Democratic politics and the dynamics of passions’, in K. Palonen, T. Pulkkinen and J. M. Rosales (eds.) The Ashgate research companion to the politics of democratization in Europe: Concepts and histories, Routledge, pp. 89–100.

  • Mureithi, A. 2023. ‘For history to judge, not the jury’: judge rules climate crisis ‘irrelevant’’, openDemocracy, 22 February, available at https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/insulate-britain-trials-climate-crisis-silas-reid-judge-court-protests/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Pateman, C. 1985. The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critique of Liberal Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Pineda, E. 2022. Beyond (and before) the Transnational Turn. Democratic Theory 9 (2): 11–36.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Plan B. 2023 ‘Judge Silas “Silencing” Reid defeated by show of solidarity for retired social worker arrested for holding up a sign’, 17 May, available at https://planb.earth/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/PR-Judge-Reid-defeated.pdf, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Basto, R.v. 2016. West London Magistrate’s Court (UK), available at https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/r-v-basto/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Bramwell, R.v., et al. 2021. Southwark Criminal Court (UK), available at https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/r-v-bramwell-et-al-the-shell-six-case/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • McKelvey, R v., and others. 2022. West London Magistrate’s Court (UK), available at https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/r-v-mckelvey-and-others-doctors-for-xr-protest-on-lambeth-bridge/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Rancière, J. 2010. Dissensus, On Politics and Aesthetics, New York (Continuum)

  • Rawls, J. (1971) A Theory of Justice. Reprint, Harvard: Harvard University Press,

  • Raz, J. 1979. Authority of Law. Oxford: Clarendon.

    Google Scholar

  • Rozenberg, J. 2020. Enemies of the People? How Judges Shape Society. Bristol: Bristol University Press.

    Book Google Scholar

  • Schaafsma, G. 2024. Contestation in the Anthropocene – Climate Change and Civil Disobedience, PhD thesis, University of Amsterdam, available at: Contestation in the Anthropocene (uva.nl).

  • Scherhaufer, P., P. Klittich, and A. Buzogány. 2021. Between Illegal Protests and Legitimate Resistance. Civil Disobedience Against Energy Infrastructures. Utilities Policy 72: 101249.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Schmidt, M.G. 2019. Demokratietheorien. Eine Einführung, Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien.

  • Sovacool, B.K., and A. Dunlap. 2021. Anarchy, War, or Revolt? Radical Perspectives for Climate Protection, Insurgency and Civil Disobedience in a Low-Carbon Era. Energy Research & Social Science 86: 102416.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Take Down Macron Protester Cases. 2019. (Fra.), available at https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/state-v-delahalle-goinvic/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • The Guardian. 2023. ‘Climate activist who allegedly held sign directed at jurors may be charged’, 4 April, available at https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/apr/04/climate-activist-trudi-warner-held-sign-telling-jurors-act-conscience-charged, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • The Kingsnorth Six Trial. 2008. Maidstone Crown Court (UK), available at http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/the-kingsnorth-six-trial/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Timlin, J. 2023. ‘Climate change campaigner is jailed’, Barnsley Chronicle, 21 April, available at https://www.barnsleychronicle.com/article/25139/climate-change-campaigner-isjailed#:~:text=David%20Nixon%2C%2036%2C%20was%20found,Britain%27s%20campaign%20of%20civil%20resistance, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • Trial of Angela Ditchfield. 2018. Cambridge Magistrates’ Court (UK), available at https://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/trial-of-angela-ditchfield/, accessed 7 Dec 2023.

  • UNEP. 2023. ‘Emissions Gap Report 2023: Broken Record––Temperatures hit new highs, yet world fails to cut emissions (again)’.

  • Vauchez, A. 2015. Brokering Europe: Euro-Lawyers and the Making of a Transnational Polity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book Google Scholar

  • Waldron, J. 1999. Law and Disagreement. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book Google Scholar

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christina Eckes.

Additional information

About this article

Cite this article

Eckes, C. Dissensus in Europe: climate protesters before court. Eur Polit Sci (2025). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-025-00540-w

  • Accepted
  • Published
  • DOI https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-025-00540-w

Keywords

  • Dissensus
  • Climate litigation
  • Civil disobedience
  • Climate protests
  • Role of judges
  • Separation of powers
WhatsApp