1. Introduction

Known for its clean streets, organized urban planning, and forward-looking governance, Kigali has set ambitious goals to shape its future. Since 2018, the city’s development strategy prioritizes sustainable urban growth, social inclusivity, and economic resilience. To achieve these objectives, Kigali aims to focus on fostering urban agriculture, diversifying cultural centres, promoting hospitality services and ecotourism, and embracing inclusive, green urbanization among others in city development strategy, CDS (2024-2029). As the city undergoes rapid urbanization, access to essential services and sustainable infrastructure becomes a cornerstone of its growth. This report aims at informing key strategic interventions of the next CDS which aligns with Kigali City Action Plan, sector strategies, regional and international development goals. According to City of Kigali (CoK) (2024) City of Kigali Vision was revised to meet the holistic development journey as “A world class centre of urban excellence as an inclusive and resilient city with a vibrant, liveable, and green economy” with a long-term. The City of Kigali Mission was revised as “Build and sustain a city of character, vibrant economy, and diversity through strong partnerships with stake-holders to provide responsive, rapid and effective urban development”.

Reliable water supply, improved sanitation, effective waste management, and access to clean energy are pivotal to supporting Kigali’s burgeoning population. These services not only enhance the quality of life for residents but also contribute to environmental conservation and resilience against climate change. Recognizing these imperatives, Kigali’s strategy emphasizes innovative solutions and participatory approaches to infrastructure development.

This document presents a detailed overview of Kigali’s essential infrastructure components through a series of infographic charts. It highlights key data and insights related to water supply, sanitation, waste management, and energy access. Each aspect has been meticulously analyzed to reflect the city’s commitment to equitable and sustainable development. The aim is to provide stakeholders, policymakers, and residents with a clear understanding of Kigali’s current status and future prospects in these critical areas.

By leveraging this comprehensive analysis, Kigali seeks to inspire collaboration and investment that aligns with its vision of becoming a modern, inclusive, and green city. Through targeted interventions and strategic partnerships, Kigali is poised to address pressing challenges while seizing opportunities to enhance urban living standards and ensure environmental sustainability. The following sections delve into the specifics of each domain, offering actionable insights and benchmarks to track progress toward the city’s development goals.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Introduction

A report of the Ministry of Local Government (MINALOC, 2023)¹ identified 14 potentialities the City of Kigali is facing namely: (1) There are economic opportunities in the sector because of the big market potential for food items in the city of Kigali; (2) Promotion of high yielding crop/animal varieties and techniques to improve the earning from subsistence agriculture; (3) Promote domestic tourism; and promote the conservation of heritage sites around the city of Kigali; (4) Promote creation of SMEs; (5) Youth committed and ready to work for the National interest (33% of the total population are 16 – 30 years old); (6) Socio-economic development created from improving transport; (7) Construction of the centralized sewage system and solid waste management system; (8) The City is provided with many growth opportunities in terms of available undeveloped land, and low-density areas with potential to be redeveloped; (9) The expansion of the National carrier (RwandAir) to many destinations has also opened up a new window of investment and tourism in Kigali; (10) Demarcation of green spaces and Beautification of parks and sides of the roads; (11) Potential investors in Health; (12) Availability of health insurance schemes; good health policies; (13) Availability of libraries to promote the culture of reading and writing; (14) Good government policies and program for sport and culture promotion.

Comprehensive Development Strategies (CDS) serve as an essential tool for urban planning, addressing rapid urbanization, and fostering sustainable growth. The framework of a CDS is built upon holistic integration of economic, social, and environmental dimensions. Globally, successful examples of such strategies emphasize inclusive urbanization, economic diversification, and environmental resilience. As noted by the World Bank (2020), “cities that adopt comprehensive and integrated planning frameworks are better positioned to address 21st-century challenges.” For Kigali City, a CDS provides an opportunity to address unique challenges such as population growth, urban sprawl, and socio-economic inequalities while leveraging its potential as a regional economic hub.

2.2. Urban Agriculture Development

Urban agriculture is increasingly recognized as a critical component of sustainable urban development. Studies by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) highlight its role in enhancing food security, reducing urban poverty, and promoting environmental sustainability. According to Mougeot (2006), “urban agriculture not only addresses food insecurity but also strengthens community resilience and environmental sustainability in cities.” Cities like Singapore and Havana have effectively integrated urban agriculture into their planning frameworks, demonstrating its potential to improve urban resilience. For Kigali, urban agriculture aligns with Rwanda’s Vision 2050 goals by offering opportunities to address food insecurity and unemployment, particularly for low-income communities. The literature underscores the need for policy incentives, capacity-building programs, and urban land-use planning to mainstream urban agriculture into Kigali’s development strategy.

2.3. Diversification of Cultural Centers

Cultural diversification is a cornerstone of creating vibrant and inclusive cities. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2016) emphasizes that cultural hubs drive tourism, preserve heritage, and foster social cohesion. Florida (2002) argues that “creative cities that invest in cultural assets and diversity attract talent and fuel economic growth.” African cities like Dakar and Cape Town have utilized cultural diversification to boost their creative economies and attract international tourism. Kigali’s rich cultural heritage and growing arts scene present an opportunity to position the city as a regional cultural destination. Literature suggests that investment in infrastructure, public-private partnerships, and digital platforms can amplify the reach and impact of cultural centers in Kigali.

2.4. Promotion of Hospitality Services and Ecotourism

The hospitality and tourism sectors are vital for Kigali’s economic development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC, 2023), tourism contributes significantly to GDP and employment in developing economies. Rwanda’s existing ecotourism framework centered on attractions like Volcanoes National Park and Nyungwe Forest has positioned the country as a global leader in sustainable tourism. Honey and Krantz (2007) emphasize that “ecotourism not only supports conservation but also provides economic benefits to local communities.” However, expanding hospitality services in Kigali requires addressing gaps in service quality, infrastructure, and accessibility. Literature points to the importance of workforce training, branding strategies, and policy reforms to enhance the city’s competitiveness as a tourism destination.

2.5. Inclusive and Green Urbanization

Inclusive urbanization ensures that all residents, regardless of socio-economic status, benefit from urban growth. Green urbanization, on the other hand, focuses on minimizing environmental impact. The World Bank (2019) and UN-Habitat (2020) advocate for integrated approaches combining these principles to create sustainable cities. Kigali’s progress in green urbanization evidenced by initiatives such as car-free zones and green buildings provides a strong foundation. Nonetheless, challenges remain in affordable housing, public transport, and waste management. Best practices from cities like Curitiba and Copenhagen highlight the need for participatory planning, innovative financing mechanisms, and enforcement of environmental regulations to achieve inclusive and green urbanization.

2.6. Access to Finance for Recovery and Resilience

Access to finance is critical for fostering resilience and recovery, especially in the context of economic shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank (2021) report stated that small and medium enterprises (SMEs) often face barriers to accessing credit, hindering their potential to contribute to economic recovery. Demirgüç-Kunt et al. (2018) argue that “financial inclusion drives economic growth and reduces income inequality by enabling access to credit and financial services.” For Kigali, enhancing financial inclusion can drive entrepreneurship and innovation. Literature highlights the effectiveness of microfinance institutions, digital banking platforms, and government-backed credit schemes in expanding access to finance. Additionally, integrating financial literacy programs into community development initiatives can enhance the long-term impact.

2.7. Understanding of Sector-Specific Patterns

• Water Supply and Sanitation: Access to improved water sources and sanitation facilities is a key determinant of public health and quality of life. The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies investments in water infrastructure as essential for urban resilience. Gleick (1996) argues that “ensuring access to clean water and sanitation is not only a human right but a foundation for sustainable urban development.” Kigali’s initiatives, such as expanding piped water networks and promoting eco-friendly sanitation systems, align with global standards but require sustained funding and community engagement.
• Energy Access and Sustainability: Expanding access to electricity and promoting clean energy sources are critical for sustainable urbanization. Studies from Sub-Saharan Africa highlight the role of decentralized renewable energy systems in addressing urban energy needs. Kigali’s adoption of solar energy and energy-efficient technologies demonstrates progress, though scaling these initiatives necessitates supportive policies and private sector collaboration.
• Waste Management: Solid waste management is a growing concern in rapidly urbanizing cities. Kigali’s zero-waste policy and community-driven waste collection programs are commendable but face challenges related to infrastructure and public awareness. Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2013) emphasizes the importance of “adopting circular economy principles to reduce waste and enhance resource efficiency”.

2.8. ICT Adoption and Digital Transformation

Digital technologies are transforming urban governance and service delivery. Kigali’s Smart City initiative showcases the potential of ICT in improving mobility, e-governance, and public safety. However, disparities in digital literacy and internet access persist. Research underscores the importance of addressing the digital divide through affordable internet, capacity-building programs, and inclusive technology design. As Castells (1996) notes, “The digital divide is not just about access to technology but also about the ability to use it effectively to participate in the network society.” As part of its vision to become a smart city, Kigali will continue to embrace ICT adoption across all sectors. The development strategy to include plans to enhance digital infrastructure, expand internet connectivity, and promote e-governance. Smart city initiatives, such as intelligent traffic management systems and digital public services, will improve operational efficiency and citizen engagement. By leveraging technology, Kigali aims to enhance urban mobility, increase access to information, and drive innovation.

The same, Priority Area 14: Foster digital transformation across key economic sectors: For Rwanda to achieve a digitally advanced society and economy, it is essential to develop a skilled workforce and create a conducive environment for digital innovation and entrepreneurship. By investing in digital literacy and skills training, the ICT sector aims to empower citizens to actively and effectively participate in the digital economy. A skilled workforce, supported by a thriving innovative ecosystem, is envisaged to not only unlock new economic opportunities, but also boost productivity, and increase tech exports. Prominently under this priority, the ICT sector aims to achieve universal digital literacy, train 1.5 million citizens in ICT skills, and create over 50,000 digital jobs. The contribution of the City of Kigali in achieving the national target is the training of 546,519 citizens during the next five years. The Outcome 14.1.: Increased digital literacy and digital skills development for a globally competitive workforce: The City of Kigali recognizes ICT prevailing issues including limited access to training and a low digital literacy rate, especially among adults. To resolve these challenges, the CoK aims to empower citizens to actively and effectively participate in the digital economy to unlock new economic opportunities, boost productivity, and increase tech exports. To achieve this target, over the next five years, the CoK aims to achieve universal digital literacy by attaining cumulatively 546,519 citizens trained in ICT skills. Finally, this paper proposes “Priority Key Strategic Interventions” to include not limited to 1) Train citizens in basic coding and advanced ICT skills and 2) universal basic digital literacy.

2.9. Future Directions and Knowledge Gaps

While existing literature provides valuable insights, several knowledge gaps remain. These include the long-term socio-economic impacts of urban agriculture, the scalability of green urbanization initiatives, and the effectiveness of financial inclusion programs. Further research is needed to explore innovative financing models, community-led urban development strategies, and the consideration of citizen participation into urban planning. Collaborative efforts between academia, government, and civil society can bridge these gaps and inform Kigali’s City Development strategy implementation.

This document highlights the importance of a multi-dimensional approach to urban development, integrating economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability. For Kigali City, the Development strategy framework offers a roadmap to harness its potential while addressing urban challenges. By drawing on global best practices and adapting them to local contexts, Kigali can position itself as a model for sustainable and inclusive urbanization in Africa. Through its holistic Kigali city Master plan to guide Kigali city planners in their plans to accommodate a population of 3.8 million residents and provide 1.8 million jobs by 2050 (CoK, 2024).

2.10. Understanding Kigali City Action Plan—KCAP (2024-2030) Assumptions for the Proposed Vision

A report of Kigali City Action Plan (2024) contributed in City of Kigali (CoK) revision of its Vision: Kigali Yacu—Our Kigali²! (Liliane Uwanziga Mupende, 2024). To become “A world class centre of urban excellence as an inclusive and resilient city with a vibrant, liveable, and green economy” with a long-term Mission: Build and sustain a city of character, vibrant economy, and diversity through strong partnerships with stakeholders to provide responsive, rapid and effective urban development. With its KCAP, the city Should capture the city’s overarching development ambition over the next 10 – 15 years. City of Kigali designed horizon based on existing main CoK strategy and plans, as well national strategies. The CoK has added details on the aspirations of the City of Kigali in next development projections. By strengthening the concept of sustainability by adding a specific pillar: Sustainable Transformation-Splitting Infrastructure and Economic Pillars to provide sector-wise objectives which will clearly be related to Actions; Elaborate on the Transformative Governance Pillar to be more specific and related to an Urban Action Plan. Adding some concepts raised during the City Action Plan process to promote inclusiveness and gender equality (City of Kigali, 2024).

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Questions

The study was guided by the following research questions:

1) Economic Development: What are the key factors influencing economic growth in each CoK district?

2) Sectoral Impact: How do policies in different sectors affect service delivery and performance within CoK districts?

3) Infrastructure and Quality of Life: What is the relationship between infrastructure availability and the quality of life in various CoK districts?

3.2. Research Approach

This study employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative analysis was to assess measurable indicators of economic performance, sectoral efficiency, and infrastructure quality. Qualitative methods, including interviews and focus groups, provided deeper insights into policy impacts and resident experiences.

3.3. Scope

• Geographical Scope: All districts under the Council of Kigali City (CoK) jurisdiction.
• Sectoral Scope: Focus on key sectors such as Education, Healthcare, Infrastructure, and Economic Development.
• Temporal Scope: Data have been collected as of October 2024 to December 2024, providing a current snapshot of each district and sector.

3.4. Research Design

• Design Type: Cross-sectional study to capture data at a single point in time across all districts and sectors.
• District-Level Analysis: Each CoK district has been examined individually to identify unique factors and common trends.
• Sector-Level Analysis: Within each district, the selected sectors have been analysed to evaluate policy effectiveness and service delivery.
• Comparative Analysis: Comparative methods have been used to identify disparities and similarities between districts and sectors.

3.5. Sampling Methodology for CoK Development Situation Assessment

To ensure a statistically valid and representative sample for CDS Study, we employed Slovin’s formula, a probabilistic approach commonly used when estimating sample sizes from large populations. The target population consists of respondents drawn from both rural and urban sectors across the three districts of Kigali City: Kicukiro, Gasabo, and Nyarugenge. The sample for this study employed Slovin’s formula, a probabilistic approach commonly used when estimating sample sizes from large populations. The target population consists of respondents drawn from both rural and urban sectors across the three districts of Kigali City: Kicukiro, Gasabo, and Nyarugenge as described in Table 1.

Table 1. CoK residents distribution by districts.

CoK/Districts	Count as of 2022			Percentage (%)
	Total	Urban	Rural	Total	Urban	Rural
Nyarugenge	374,319	315,899	58,420	100	84.4	15.6
Gasabo	879,505	714,069	165,436	100	81.2	18.8
Kicukiro	491,731	487,200	4531	100	99.1	0.9

National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda³ (NISR), 2022.

3.6. Sample Size Calculation

The Cochran’s formula has been used to determine an ideal sample size as the population given above is large and we wanted to estimate proportions with a certain level of confidence and precision.

n0=Z2⋅p ⋅(1−p)e2

where:

• n₀ = sample size.
• Z = Z-score (based on desired confidence level, 1.96 for 95%).
• p = estimated proportion of the population (used 0.5).
• e = desired margin of error (0.05 for ±5%).

Based on official findings from the recent publications from NISR, the estimated total target population (n₀) from which respondents will be drawn consists of 480 individuals across the three districts. Thus, a sample size of 430 respondents is required to achieve a 95% confidence level with a 5% margin of error.

Using the above formula the sample size is calculated below:

n0=(1.96)2⋅0.5⋅(1−0.5)(0.05)2 = 384.16 for our study, we used 430 respondents.

The sample size distribution is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Sample distribution by CoK districts.

District	Urban Population	Rural Population	Urban %	Rural %	Sample Size Allocated
Nyarugenge	315,899	58,420	84.4	15.6	430*16.3% = 70
Gasabo	714,069	165,436	81.2	18.8	430*46.2% = 198
Kicukiro	487,200	4531	99.1	0.9	430*37.5% = 162
Total	1,517,168	228,387	–	–	430

NISR, 2022.

Each district’s sample was further broken down into urban and rural sectors according to population distribution: Given Cochran’s calculations, the study has adopted a sample size of approximately 430 respondents. The sample has been proportionally allocated across the three districts and further categorized into urban and rural sectors. Stratified random sampling has been applied to ensure representation from both urban and rural sectors while choosing every Kth respondent from the Household in the provided range of area.

3.7. Data Collection Methods

Quantitative Data: Surveys and official records from governmental and sector-specific databases. Qualitative Data: Quantitative Survey, Semi-structured interviews of key Informants and focus groups with key stakeholders, including policymakers, sector managers, and residents.

3.8. Sampling of Sector, Cell and Villages

As per William G. Cochran (“Sampling Techniques”), a random sampling of cells and villages is adopted in cascading as a multi-stage sampling technique designed to enhance the representativeness of the study’s population parameter. Here’s a brief description of its application which has helped us carry out this extensive field task:

1. Firststage:Selection of cells

The cells within Kigali City were stratified based on relevant criteria such as geographic location, population density, or socio-economic characteristics. A random sampling method was used to select a representative subset of cells to ensure diverse coverage.

1. Second stage:Selectionof villages

Within each selected cell, villages were identified as sub-units for further sampling. A similar random sampling process was applied, selecting villages to reflect the diversity within each cell.

1. Finalstage:Selection of respondents

From the chosen villages, respondents were selected using systematic random sampling. Every household or individual was selected from a pre-determined sampling frame, where k was meant to be calculated as the total population of the sampling frame divided by the desired sample size. This systematic approach has revealed to be handy and successfully minimize bias and ensure proportional representation across all strata.

3.9. Data Analysis

Quantitative Analysis: Here inference of causality patterns has been drawn to proceed with Statistical techniques such as regression analysis, ANOVA, and factor analysis to test hypotheses related to the research questions. Qualitative Analysis: Thematic analysis to identify recurring themes and insights from interviews and focus groups.

3.10. Ethical Considerations and Demographic Characteristics

Throughout the whole process of this study’s data collection, the following ethical considerations were scrupulously respected to avoid common research misconduct: Ensure informed consent from all participants and achieve full compliance to standards of CoK & NISR study protocols. Maintain confidentiality and anonymity of respondents. Secure data storage and handle all information in compliance with ethical guidelines. When selecting rural and urban sectors within a wide range of districts’ sectors for this study, criteria were mainly based on specific objectives and contexts typically considered as follows:

1. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS:High population density for urban sectors; lower density for rural sectors. Furthermore, sectors experiencing rapid growth may be prioritized for urban studies or interventions. Additional population structures like the average household size, household types, and dependency ratios have been also considered. This varies from dominant industries or livelihoods, such as agriculture in rural areas or services in urban sectors. We notice that Sectors experience varying levels of income and poverty to capture disparities. Basically, Urban sectors often have diverse job markets; rural sectors may rely on subsistence farming.
2. ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICES:Representative counts have been purposively taken in normal distribution by Presence of roads, public transport systems, and accessibility to nearby commercial centers, basic services like Availability of water, sanitation, electricity, healthcare, and education facilities. Digital connectivity like Internet and ICT access, critical for urban and semi-urban sectors. Factors like Proximity to urban centers are also critical for Sectors close to urban areas may exhibit peri-urban characteristics. For instance, urban sectors prioritize areas with higher economic activity, infrastructure development, and challenges like congestion or housing shortages. As opposed to rural sectors whose main concerns are agricultural potential, rural poverty, and connectivity challenges. By using these criteria, decision-makers can ensure that selected sectors represent diverse conditions and provide insights into both challenges and opportunities across rural and urban areas.

3.11. Selection of Key Informants Interviews—KIIS

Key informants were sampled randomly by selecting at least four respondents from each line ministry, and were targeted from community level authorities, public institutions, FBOs and/or private sectors. A total of 12 key informants were reached for this research.

3.12. Gender and Inclusiveness throughout CDS Survey Sampling

This study undertaking has strived to reach normally distributed number of respondents by gender across all Districts of the City and key informants with disability inclusion lenses, since this is one of key drivers that will guide the next five years development priorities for championing the criteria of ensuring that none is left behind within our sustainable city development interventions. In nutshell, the data collection was conducted from 394 respondents to quantitative survey questionnaires, 10 sets of FGDs and 12 Key Informant Interview sessions.

3.13. Data Collection, Analysis and Reporting

The elaboration of this Report has employed MS Forms, Kobo collect, Pictochart, Microsoft Excel Sheet and SPSS_25 to collect & analyze quantitative data from the field survey and secondary data gathering. Content analysis was used to analyze all qualitative data from FGDs and key informant interviews. A group of around 20 data enumerators and established leadership i.e., team supervisors among enumerators have been deployed for a couple of weeks and have greatly contributed to prompt smart report submissions, therefore availing an integrated database to serve as a basis for more cleaning and validation exercises for improved data quality data assurance. Kobo toolbox was used throughout the data collection, which contributed to minimizing any errors and increasing accuracy of data collection. Finally, the researcher has initiated a social media platform which enabled key role players to coordinate data collection and provide timely support to enumerators when required.

Study Limitation

While conducting this Development Strategy Assessment, and right from convening about its inception, some limitations were encountered. The main limitation was the very scope of the assignment which has been revealed to be very wide and multi-dimensional in nature, time constraints and budget which has led to reconsidering the years it has to be covering. This resulted in the fact that our elaboration of strategies has always been subject to emerging issues for constant need to be reflected with high risk of keeping several versions with unforeseen editing. This research has also faced issues of conflicting appointments of urban citizens who happen to be always busy rushing for their business commitments, which affected the participation of the respondents especially in trade areas. However, it is noteworthy to underline the fact that alternative solutions to these limitations have been discussed and agreed upon. All limitations have been systematically recorded and their remedial actions were conveniently documented to serve as important lessons learned in further research works moving forwards.

4. Research Findings

The findings presented herein offer critical insights into key aspects of Kigali’s transport and urban systems. They highlight patterns in accessibility, adoption, and preferences for e-mobility, as well as challenges and opportunities for inclusive urban transformation. Emphasis is placed on understanding the lived experiences of residents, their engagement with existing infrastructure, and the broader implications for sustainable urban growth. Key themes emerging from the analysis include: Transport Development: where patterns of accessibility, infrastructure quality, and public transport utilization are presented in details; E-Mobility Trends aimed at presenting levels of awareness, adoption rates, and perceptions of e-mobility among citizens and Inclusivity in Urban Transformation which portray an assessment of socio-economic disparities, urban planning priorities, and the effectiveness of citizen participation in shaping policies. These findings aim to inform policymakers, urban planners, and stakeholders, providing actionable recommendations for fostering a sustainable and inclusive urban environment in Kigali City. Field facts also investigate the dynamics of peripheral Vs urban settlements, respondents’ preferences for future development programs as well as diversification of integrated business opportunities, sustainable green growth and off firm job creation in Kigali City, with a strong emphasis on citizen-centered approaches.