Article Content

Abstract

Research in the philosophy of science has primarily emphasized how philosophical reflection can aid students in understanding the history of science, rather than directly introducing them to the ideas of philosophers. This study, positioned as a pilot study, examines the performance of high school students in China on socioscientific issues (SSIs), such as the COVID-19 vaccine and local nuclear power plants taught according to the Toulmin argumentation pattern (TAP), Karl Popper’s “falsificationism,” and the game of Eleusis. The research method includes a deductive thematic analysis of students’ dialogues in the classroom and interviews with some students after class. Compared with the performance of the comparison group, which was taught only the TAP, the performance of the students in the treatment group with the TAP and “falsificationism” on socioscientific issues improved significantly in terms of both the structure and content of argumentation. Surveys of the students who had participated in the course revealed that the concept of “falsificationism” and corresponding practices played in the course improved the participants’ argumentation ability. In addition, the discussion of local SSI prompted students to participate better in the argumentation process. While the small number of groups necessitates caution in generalizing the findings, the study provides preliminary evidence for the role of philosophy in SSI-based argumentation instruction.

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

  • Critical Thinking
  • Discourse Analysis
  • Educational Research
  • Pedagogy
  • Philosophy
  • Reasoning

Data Availability

The data corpus used in the current study is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

References

  • Abbott, R. (1965). Abbott’s new card games: Babel, Leopard, auction, variety, metamorphosis, switch, Eleusis, construction, ultima. Frederick Muller Limited.

  • Adúriz-Bravo, A. (2014). Teaching the nature of science with scientific narratives. Interchange, 45(3–4), 167–184.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Allchin, D., & Zemplén, G. Á. (2020). Finding the place of argumentation in science education: Epistemics and whole science. Science Education, 104(5), 907–933.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Archila, P. A. (2015). Using history and philosophy of science to promote students’ argumentation: A teaching–learning sequence based on the discovery of oxygen. Science & Education, 24(9–10), 1201–1226.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Archila, P. A., Restrepo, S., Truscott de Mejía, A.-M., & Bloch, N. I. (2023). Drama as a powerful tool to enrich socio-scientific argumentation. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 21(5), 1661–1683.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Bacon, F. (2000). The new organon. Cambridge University Press.

  • Balgopal, M. M., Wallace, A. M., & Dahlberg, S. (2017). Writing from different cultural contexts: How college students frame an environmental SSI through written arguments. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 54(2), 195–218.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Bathgate, M., Crowell, A., Schunn, C., Cannady, M., & Dorph, R. (2015). The learning benefits of being willing and able to engage in scientific argumentation. International Journal of Science Education, 37(10), 1590–1612.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Bialystok, L. (2017). Philosophy across the curriculum and the question of teacher capacity; or, what is philosophy and who can teach it? Journal of Philosophy of Education, 51(4), 817–836.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Binns, I. C., & Bell, R. L. (2015). Representation of scientific methodology in secondary science textbooks. Science & Education, 24, 913–936.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Braund, M., Lubben, F., Scholtz, Z., Sadeck, M., & Hodges, M. (2007). Comparing the effect of scientific and socio-scientific argumentation tasks: Lessons from South Africa. School Science Review, 88(324), 67.

  • Brown, R. A. J., & Renshaw, P. D. (2000). Collective argumentation: A sociocultural approach to reframing classroom teaching and learning. In H. Cowie, & G. van der Aalsvoort (Eds.), Social interaction in learning and instruction: The meaning of discourse for the construction of knowledge (pp. 52–66). Pergamon/Elsevier Science Inc.

  • Bryce, T. G., & Day, S. P. (2014). Scepticism and doubt in science and science education: The complexity of global warming as a socio-scientific issue. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 9, 599–632.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Burla, L., Knierim, B., Barth, J., Liewald, K., Duetz, M., & Abel, T. (2008). From text to codings: Intercoder reliability assessment in qualitative content analysis. Nursing Research, 57(2), 113–117.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Butera, F., Caverni, J.-P., & Rossi, S. (2005). Interaction with a high-versus low-competence influence source in inductive reasoning. The Journal of Social Psychology, 145(2), 173–190.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Capkinoglu, E., Yilmaz, S., & Leblebicioglu, G. (2020). Quality of argumentation by seventh-graders in local socioscientific issues. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 57(6), 827–855.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Çayır, N. A. (2018). Philosophy for children in teacher education: Effects, difficulties, and recommendations. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 11(2), 173–180.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Christenson, N., & Chang Rundgren, S.-N. (2015). A framework for teachers’ assessment of socio-scientific argumentation: An example using the GMO issue. Journal of Biological Education, 49(2), 204–212.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Christenson, N., & Walan, S. (2023). Developing pre-service teachers’ competence in assessing socioscientific argumentation. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 34(1), 1–23.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Christodoulou, A., & Osborne, J. (2014). The science classroom as a site of epistemic talk: A case study of a teacher’s attempts to teach science based on argument. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(10), 1275–1300.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Council, N. R. (2013). Next generation science standards: For states, by states. The National Academies Press.

  • Dalyot, K., Rozenblum, Y., & Baram-Tsabari, A. (2022). Justification of decision-making in response to COVID-19 socio-scientific dilemmas. In The pandemic of argumentation (pp. 247–268). Springer International Publishing Cham.

  • Davies, M. (2013). Critical thinking and the disciplines reconsidered. Higher Education Research & Development, 32(4), 529–544.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Dawson, V., & Carson, K. (2017). Using climate change scenarios to assess high school students’ argumentation skills. Research in Science & Technological Education, 35(1), 1–16.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Dawson, V., & Carson, K. (2020). Introducing argumentation about climate change socioscientific issues in a disadvantaged school. Research in Science Education, 50, 863–883.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Dawson, V. M., & Venville, G. (2010). Teaching strategies for developing students’ argumentation skills about socioscientific issues in high school genetics. Research in Science Education, 40, 133–148.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Dawson, V., & Venville, G. (2013). Introducing high school biology students to argumentation about socioscientific issues. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 13(4), 356–372.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Dias, G., & P dos Santos, R. (2015). The game of Eleusis: An entertaining simulation of the research heuristic. Acta Scientiae (Ulbra)17(3).

  • Driver, R., Newton, P., & Osborne, J. (2000). Establishing the norms of scientific argumentation in classrooms. Science Education, 84(3), 287–312.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Duschl, R. A., & Osborne, J. (2002). Supporting and promoting argumentation discourse in science education. Studies in Science Education, 38(1), 39–72.

  • Erduran, S., & Jiménez-Aleixandre, M. P. (2012). Argumentation in science education research: Perspectives from Europe. In Science education research and practice in Europe (pp. 253–289). Brill.

  • Erduran, S. (2020). Science education in the era of a pandemic: How can history, philosophy and sociology of science contribute to education for understanding and solving the Covid-19 crisis? In (Vol. 29, pp. 233–235): Springer.

  • Erduran, S. (2022). Argumentation in chemistry education: Research, policy and practice. Royal Society of Chemistry.

    Google Scholar

  • Erduran, S., Ardac, D., & Yakmaci-Guzel, B. (2006). Learning to teach argumentation: Case studies of pre-service secondary science teachers. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 2(2), 1–14.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Erduran, S., & Jiménez-Aleixandre, M. P. (2008). Argumentation in science education. Perspectives from classroom-based research. Springer.

    Google Scholar

  • Erduran, S., Simon, S., & Osborne, J. (2004). TAPping into argumentation: Developments in the application of Toulmin’s argument pattern for studying science discourse. Science Education, 88(6), 915–933.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Eryasar, A. S., & Kilinc, A. (2022). The coherence between epistemologies and SSI teaching: A multiple-case study with three science teachers. Science & Education, 31(1), 123–147.

  • Garcia Romano, L., Occelli, M., & Adúriz-Bravo, A. (2021). School scientific argumentation enriched by digital technologies: Results with pre-and in-service science teachers. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education17(7).

  • Gorman, M. E., & Gorman, M. E. (1984). A comparison of disconfirmatory, confirmatory and control strategies on Wason’s 2–4–6 task. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36(4), 629–648.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Gorman, M. E., Gorman, M. E., Latta, R. M., & Cunningham, G. (1984). How disconfirmatory, confirmatory and combined strategies affect group problem solving. British Journal of Psychology, 75(1), 65–79.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Hanna, R. (2020). Popular philosophy,‘populist philosophy,’ mind-manacled philosophy, and real philosophy. Against Professional Philosophy, 8.

  • Herman, B. C., Clough, M. P., & Rao, A. (2022). Socioscientific Issues thinking and action in the midst of science-in-the-making. Science & Education, 31(5), 1105–1139.

  • Jiménez-Aleixandre, M. P., & Erduran, S. (2007). Argumentation in science education: An overview. In Erduran, S., & Jiménez-Aleixandre, M. P. (Eds.), Argumentation in Science Education. Science & Technology Education Library, vol 35. Springer, Dordrecht.

  • Karisan, D., & Zeidler, D. L. (2017). Contextualization of nature of science within the socioscientific issues framework: A review of research. International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, 5(2), 139–152.

    Google Scholar

  • Ke, L., Sadler, T. D., Zangori, L., & Friedrichsen, P. J. (2021). Developing and using multiple models to promote scientific literacy in the context of socio-scientific issues. Science & Education, 30(3), 589–607.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Khishfe, R. (2022). Nature of science and argumentation instruction in socioscientific and scientific contexts. International Journal of Science Education, 44(4), 647–673.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Kolstø, S. D., Paulsen, V. H. P., & Mestad, I. (2024). Critical thinking in the making: Students’ critical thinking practices in a multifaceted SSI project. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 19(4), 499–530.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Kuhn, T. S. (2012). Objectivity, value judgment, and theory choice. In Arguing about science (pp. 74–86). Routledge.

  • Kuhn, D., & Crowell, A. (2011). Dialogic argumentation as a vehicle for developing young adolescents’ thinking. Psychological Science, 22(4), 545–552.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Kuhn, D., & Moore, W. (2015). Argumentation as core curriculum. Learning: Research and practice, 1(1), 66–78.

    Google Scholar

  • Kuhn, D., & Udell, W. (2003). The development of argument skills. Child Development, 74(5), 1245–1260.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Lagaron, D. M. C. (2014). Preparing pre-service science teachers to teach socio-scientific (SSI) argumentation. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 69, 39–48.

    Google Scholar

  • Lam, C. M. (2007). Is Popper’s falsificationist heuristic a helpful resource for developing critical thinking? Educational Philosophy and Theory, 39(4), 432–448.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Lazarou, D. (2009, August). Learning to TAP: An effort to scaffold students’ argumentation in science. In ESERA 2009 Conference Proceedings (pp. 43–50).

  • Lazarou, D., Erduran, S., & Sutherland, R. (2017). Argumentation in science education as an evolving concept: Following the object of activity. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 14, 51–66.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Lazarou, D., Sutherland, R., & Erduran, S. (2016). Argumentation in science education as a systemic activity: An activity-theoretical perspective. International Journal of Educational Research, 79, 150–166.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Lin, S.-S. (2014). Science and non-science undergraduate students’critical thinking and argumentation performance in reading a science news report. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 12, 1023–1046.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Lipman, M. (1976). Philosophy for children. Metaphilosophy, 7(1), 17–39.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Liu, S., & Roehrig, G. (2019). Exploring science teachers’ argumentation and personal epistemology about global climate change. Research in Science Education, 49, 173–189.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Liu, W., Li, X., & Li, G. (2023). The contributions of philosophy of science in science education research: A literature review. Science & Education, 1–20.

  • Magolda, P. M., & Magolda, M. B. B. (2023). Contested issues in student affairs: Diverse perspectives and respectful dialogue. Taylor & Francis.

  • Martín-Páez, T., Aguilera, D., Perales-Palacios, F. J., & Vílchez-González, J. M. (2019). What are we talking about when we talk about STEM education? A Review of Literature. Science Education, 103(4), 799–822.

    Google Scholar

  • Matthews, M. R. (1992). Constructivism and empiricism: An incomplete divorce. Research in Science Education, 22, 299–307.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Matthews, M. R. (2014). Science teaching: The contribution of history and philosophy of science. Routledge.

    Book Google Scholar

  • Matthews, M. R. (2024). Thomas Kuhn and science education: Learning from the past and the importance of history and philosophy of science. Science & Education, 33(3), 609–678.

    Article Google Scholar

  • McDonald, C. V. (2010). The influence of explicit nature of science and argumentation instruction on preservice primary teachers’ views of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47(9), 1137–1164.

    Article Google Scholar

  • McKeon, R. (2009). The basic works of Aristotle. Modern Library.

  • Merryfield, M. (2012). Four strategies for teaching open-mindedness. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 25(2), 18–22.

    Google Scholar

  • Mork, S. M. (2005). Argumentation in science lessons: Focusing on the teacher’s role. Nordic Studies in Science Education, 1(1), 17–30.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Murris, K. (2016). The posthuman child: Educational transformation through philosophy with picturebooks. Routledge.

    Book Google Scholar

  • Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Nussbaum, E. M. (2008). Collaborative discourse, argumentation, and learning: Preface and literature review. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33(3), 345–359.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Nussbaum, E. M. (2012). Argumentation and student-centered learning environments. Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments, 2, 114–141.

    Google Scholar

  • Nussbaum, E. M. (2021). Critical integrative argumentation: Toward complexity in students’ thinking. Educational Psychologist, 56(1), 1–17.

    Article Google Scholar

  • O’Keefe, D. J. (1999). How to handle opposing arguments in persuasive messages: A meta-analytic review of the effects of one-sided and two-sided messages. Annals of the International Communication Association, 22(1), 209–249.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Ortiz, C. M. A. (2007). Does philosophy improve critical thinking skills? University of Melbourne.

    Google Scholar

  • Osborne, J. (2000). Science for citizenship. Good Practice in Science Teaching: What Research Has to Say, 2, 46–67.

    Google Scholar

  • Osborne, J., Erduran, S., & Simon, S. (2004). Enhancing the quality of argumentation in school science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41(10), 994–1020.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Osborne, J., Simon, S., Christodoulou, A., Howell-Richardson, C., & Richardson, K. (2013). Learning to argue: A study of four schools and their attempt to develop the use of argumentation as a common instructional practice and its impact on students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 50(3), 315–347.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Owens, D. C., Sadler, T. D., & Zeidler, D. L. (2017). Controversial issues in the science classroom. Phi Delta Kappan, 99(4), 45–49.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Pontecorvo, C., & Girardet, H. (1993). Arguing and reasoning in understanding historical topics. Cognition and Instruction, 11(3–4), 365–395.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Popper, K. (1945). The poverty of historicism. III. Economica, 12(46), 69–89.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Popper, K. R. (1963). Science as falsification. Conjectures and Refutations, 1(1963), 33–39.

    Google Scholar

  • Popper, K. R. (1975). The open society and its enemies: Hegel & Marx. Royal National Institute for the Blind.

    Google Scholar

  • Popper, K. R. (1994). The myth of the framework: In defence of science and rationality. Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar

  • Popper, K. (2005). The logic of scientific discovery. Routledge.

    Book Google Scholar

  • Popper, K. R. (2020). The open society and its enemies (Vol. 119). Princeton University Press.

  • Puig, B., & Jiménez-Aleixandre, M. P. (2011). Different music to the same score: Teaching about genes, environment, and human performances. In Socio-scientific issues in the classroom: Teaching, learning and research (pp. 201–238). Springer.

  • Reichenbach, H. (1938). Experience and prediction. An analysis of the foundations and the structure of knowledge. Journal of Philosophy, 35(10).

  • Reimers, F. M. (2020). Educating students to improve the world. Springer Nature.

    Book Google Scholar

  • Reiss, J., & Sprenger, J. (2013). Scientific objectivity. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

  • Reiss, M. J. (2008). Should science educators deal with the science/religion issue? Studies in Science Education, 44(2), 157–186.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Reiss, M. J. (2020). Science education in the light of COVID-19: The contribution of history, philosophy and sociology of science. Science & Education, 29(4), 1079–1092.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Ribeiro, H. J. (2021). Karl Popper and contemporary argumentation theory: The case of pragma-dialectics. Revista Filosófica De Coimbra, 30(59), 71–98.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Sadler, T. D. (2009). Situated learning in science education: Socio-scientific issues as contexts for practice. Studies in Science Education, 45(1), 1–42.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Sadler, T. D., & Dawson, V. (2011). Socio-scientific issues in science education: Contexts for the promotion of key learning outcomes. Second international handbook of science education, 799–809.

  • Sadler, T. D., & Donnelly, L. A. (2006). Socioscientific argumentation: The effects of content knowledge and morality. International Journal of Science Education, 28(12), 1463–1488.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Sadler, T. D., & Zeidler, D. L. (2004). The morality of socioscientific issues: Construal and resolution of genetic engineering dilemmas. Science Education, 88(1), 4–27.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Sadler, T. D., & Zeidler, D. L. (2005). The significance of content knowledge for informal reasoning regarding socioscientific issues: Applying genetics knowledge to genetic engineering issues. Science Education, 89(1), 71–93.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Sadler, T. D., Barab, S. A., & Scott, B. (2007). What do students gain by engaging in socioscientific inquiry? Research in Science Education, 37, 371–391.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Sampson, V. D., & Clark, D. B. (2006, June). Assessment of argument in science education: a critical review of the literature. In Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Learning sciences (pp. 655–661).

  • Schickore, J. (2011). More thoughts on HPS: Another 20 years later. Perspectives on Science, 19(4), 453–481.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Scipione, L. (2020). philosophy (and argumentation) for children: Some reflection for primary school. Childhood & Philosophy, 16, 1–25.

  • Shi, X. (2021). Using explicit teaching of philosophy to promote understanding of the nature of science: a case study from a Chinese high school. Science & Education, 30(2), 409–440.

  • Shi, X. (2023). The value of the philosophy of science in senior high school science education from the perspective of the nature of science. Science & Education, 32(5), 1613–1636.

  • Shi, X. (2024). Improving argumentation by teaching philosophy of science with critical questions in Chinese senior high school. International Journal of Science Education, 46(16), 1690–1712.

  • Sjøberg, S., & Jenkins, E. (2022). PISA: A political project and a research agenda. Studies in Science Education, 58(1), 1–14.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Solar, H., Ortiz, A., Deulofeu, J., & Ulloa, R. (2021). Teacher support for argumentation and the incorporation of contingencies in mathematics classrooms. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 52(7), 977–1005.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Teixeira, E. S., Greca, I. M., & Freire, O. (2012). The history and philosophy of science in physics teaching: A research synthesis of didactic interventions. Science & Education, 21, 771–796.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Tsai, C.-Y. (2018). The effect of online argumentation of socio-scientific issues on students’ scientific competencies and sustainability attitudes. Computers & Education, 116, 14–27.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Tyrrell, D., & Calinger, M. (2020, June). Breaking the COVID-19 Ice: Integrating socioscientific issues into problem-based learning lessons in middle school. In EdMedia+ Innovate Learning (pp. 120–125). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).

  • Untereiner, B. (2013). Teaching and learning the elements of argumentation. University of Victoria (Canada).

  • Van Gelder, T., Bissett, M., & Cumming, G. (2004). Cultivating expertise in informal reasoning. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/revue Canadienne De Psychologie Expérimentale, 58(2), 142.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Von Aufschnaiter, C., Erduran, S., Osborne, J., & Simon, S. (2008). Arguing to learn and learning to argue: Case studies of how students’ argumentation relates to their scientific knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, 45(1), 101–131.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Walton, D. (2007). Media argumentation: Dialectic, persuasion and rhetoric. Cambridge University Press.

    Book Google Scholar

  • Wang, H. A., & Sshmidt, W. H. (2001). History, philosophy and sociology of science in science education: Results from the third international mathematics and science study. Science & Education, 10, 51–70.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Wang, J., & Buck, G. (2015). The relationship between Chinese students’ subject matter knowledge and argumentation pedagogy. International Journal of Science Education, 37(2), 340–366.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Watt, M. G. (2011). The Common Core State Standards Initiative: An overview. Online submission.

  • Wong, S. L., & Hodson, D. (2009). From the horse’s mouth: What scientists say about scientific investigation and scientific knowledge. Science Education, 93(1), 109–130.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Yacoubian, H. A. (2018). Scientific literacy for democratic decision-making. International Journal of Science Education, 40(3), 308–327.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Yao, J.-X., & Guo, Y.-Y. (2018). Core competences and scientific literacy: The recent reform of the school science curriculum in China. International Journal of Science Education, 40(15), 1913–1933.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Zeidler, D. L., & Sadler, T. D. (2008). The role of moral reasoning in argumentation: Conscience, character, and care. In Argumentation in science education: Perspectives from classroom-based research (pp. 201–216). Springer.

  • Zeidler, D. L., Sadler, T. D., Applebaum, S., & Callahan, B. E. (2009). Advancing reflective judgment through socioscientific issues. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, 46(1), 74–101.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Zhang, J., & Browne, W. J. (2023). Exploring Chinese high school students’ performance and perceptions of scientific argumentation by understanding it as a three-component progression of competencies. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 60(4), 847–884.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Zohar, A. (2007). Science teacher education and professional development in argumentation. In Argumentation in science education: Perspectives from classroom-based research (pp. 245–268). Springer.

  • Zohar, A., Degani, A., & Vaaknin, E. (2001). Teachers’ beliefs about low-achieving students and higher order thinking. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(4), 469–485.

    Article Google Scholar

  • Zohar, A., & Nemet, F. (2002). Fostering students’ knowledge and argumentation skills through dilemmas in human genetics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, 39(1), 35–62.

    Article Google Scholar

Funding

Ningbo Philosophy and Social Sciences Planning Project (G2024-1–55).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xiaoming Shi.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval

The study received ethical approval from the University’s Research Ethics Committee. Additionally, the study met the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2017).

Human Ethics and Consent to Participate

Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study and the study was approved by the Ethics Committee. All participants were provided with detailed information about the study, including their right to withdraw at any time without penalty.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Appendix

Appendix

Table 5 Statistical analysis of argumentation excerpts in both groups at different TAP levels
Full size table
Table 6 Examples related to TAP model by students in the treatment group during three lessons
Full size table
Table 7 Examples related to CIA model by students in the treatment group during three lessons
Full size table

About this article

Cite this article

Shi, X. Improving the Argumentation Abilities of High School Students in China via the Toulmin Argumentation Pattern, Popper’s Falsificationism, and the Game of Eleusis. Sci & Educ (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-025-00656-x

  • Received
  • Revised
  • Accepted
  • Published
  • DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-025-00656-x

Keywords

  • Argumentation
  • Philosophy
  • Science education
WhatsApp